They often disagreed, although Eisenhower, as the junior officer, still had to carry out the general's orders. Despite their different styles, Eisenhower stayed with MacArthur when he moved to the Philippines in to organize and train the army of the Philippine Commonwealth. These training exercises, in which more than , troops participated, revealed Eisenhower's talent for strategic planning and earned him a promotion to brigadier general.
Marshall, a keen but stern judge of military ability who rarely spoke words of praise. Promotions and critical assignments followed quickly. The next year, he directed the invasions of Sicily and Italy. In only a few years, Eisenhower had risen from an obscure lieutenant colonel to a four-star general in charge of one of the greatest military forces in history. By dealing sympathetically with Allied leaders, Eisenhower achieved the cooperative effort that enabled him to launch the D-Day invasion of Normandy, June 6, His terse decision, "Okay, let's go," despite the chance of poor weather won admiration from the Allied leaders and the troops that risked—and gave—their lives on the beaches of Normandy.
After Germany's surrender in May , Eisenhower received a hero's welcome at victory ceremonies in several Allied capitals, including Washington, D. Yet peace also brought controversy for Eisenhower in his role as the commander of U.
He endured criticism for allowing the Red Army to liberate Berlin in the final days of fighting. Eisenhower, however, thought he made the right decision, as he adhered to previous agreements about how far troops should advance and avoided unnecessary casualties to the forces he commanded. Eisenhower had to take an unpopular step when he relieved his old friend George Patton as military governor of Bavaria because of the general's violation of orders against using former Nazis in government positions.
Eisenhower also adhered strictly to a provision of the Yalta agreements that he return all Soviet citizens in the U. Eisenhower had clear views on what became one of the most controversial decisions that a President has ever made, when President Harry S. Truman authorized the use of the atomic bomb against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. After news of the test in the New Mexico desert of the first atomic bomb reached U.
Stimson that the bomb was unnecessary, as Japan was on the verge of surrender. Eisenhower also feared that the first use of atomic weapons in combat would tarnish the image of the United States at the very moment when its prestige was at an all-time high. But Truman accepted the counsel of other advisers, who, unlike Eisenhower, had been at the center of discussion about the war in the Pacific, and authorized the Army Air Forces to drop whatever bombs were available—then two—as soon as possible.
At the end of , Eisenhower returned to Washington, D. Hayes James Garfield Chester A. Roosevelt Harry S. Truman Dwight D. Eisenhower John F. Kennedy Lyndon B. Johnson Richard M. Nixon Gerald R. Bush William J. Clinton George W. Bush Barack Obama Donald J. Trump Joseph R.
Negotiating from military strength, he tried to reduce the strains of the cold war. In , the signing of a truce brought an armed peace along the border of South Korea. The death of Stalin the same year caused shifts in relations with the Soviet Union. In September , Eisenhower suffered a heart attack in Denver, Colorado. After seven weeks he left the hospital, and in February doctors told him he was well enough to seek a second term, which he won by another landslide over Stevenson.
Board of Education decision. He welcomed Nikita Khrushchev to Camp David and planned to meet the Soviet leader at a four-power Paris summit the following spring to seek ways to reduce their antagonism.
But just before the meeting, the Soviets shot down an American U-2 spy plane over their territory, which scuttled the summit and reinflamed cold war passions on both sides. After years of cardiac illness, he died in Washington, D. Mamie Eisenhower. Next Native Americans and the White House. Native Americans hold a significant place in White House history.
In , he declared that he was a Republican and returned home to win his party's presidential nomination, with Richard M. Nixon as his running mate.
He easily beat Democrat Adlai Stevenson in and again in Eisenhower was a popular President throughout his two terms in office. His moderate Republican policies helped him secure many victories in Congress, even though Democrats held the majority in both the House and the Senate during six of the eight years that Eisenhower was in the White House.
Eisenhower helped strengthen established programs, such as Social Security, and launch important new ones, such as the Interstate Highway System in , which became the single largest public works program in U.
Yet there were problems and failures as well as achievements. Although he secured from Congress the first civil rights legislation since the period of Reconstruction after the Civil War, he refrained from speaking out to advance the cause of racial justice. He never endorsed the Supreme Court's ruling in that racially segregated schools were unconstitutional, and he failed to use his moral authority as President to urge speedy compliance with the Court's decision.
In , he did send federal troops to Little Rock, Arkansas, when mobs tried to block the desegregation of Central High School, but he did so because he had a constitutional obligation to uphold the law, not because he supported integration. Eisenhower also refrained from publicly criticizing Senator Joseph R. McCarthy, who used his powers to abuse the civil liberties of dozens of citizens who he accused of anti-American activities.
Eisenhower privately despised McCarthy, and he worked behind the scenes with congressional leaders to erode McCarthy's influence. Eisenhower's indirect tactics eventually worked, but they also prolonged the senator's power since many people concluded that even the President was unwilling to confront McCarthy.
Six months after he became President, Eisenhower agreed to an armistice that ended three years of fighting in Korea. Only on one other occasion—in Lebanon in —did Eisenhower send combat troops into action.
Yet defense spending remained high, as Eisenhower made vigorous efforts to wage the Cold War. He placed new emphasis on nuclear strength, which was popularly known as massive retaliation, to prevent the outbreak of war. He also frequently authorized the Central Intelligence Agency CIA to undertake covert actions—secret interventions to overthrow unfriendly governments or protect reliable anti-Communist leaders whose power was threatened. The CIA helped topple the governments of Iran in and Guatemala in , but it suffered an embarrassing failure in when it intervened in Indonesia.
Eisenhower avoided war in Indochina in when he decided not to authorize an air strike to rescue French troops at the crucial battle of Dienbienphu.
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