In he left Bonn and headed back to Berlin to assume Rudolphi's old position as Chair of Anatomy and Physiology at the University of Berlin a position he "skillfully negotiated" for following Rudolphi's death.
He eventually earned the greatest scientific laurels of his day, including the Copley Medal the highest award bestowed by the Royal Society in , and being named Editor of Archiv fur Anatomie und Physiologie. He died from an opium overdose, after nearly dying years earlier in a shipwreck. After his death, the Powers That Be at the University of Berlin thought his scope and vision were so great that they essentially split up his position, creating three new professorships in pathology, anatomy, and physiology to replace him.
This book was a landmark in the field, and for the first time brought together physiology with human and comparative anatomy, clinical practice, as well as aspects of chemistry and physics. For the rest of the 19th century, this was thus the textbook in physiology. He also did notable work in many other areas, including vision, anatomy, developmental embryology, endocrinology, and the study of speech and hearing. He was the first to use the microscope in pathology.
Perhaps his most notable work on vision science was his work on visual hallucinations. He frequently hallucinated himself as a child, 'seeing' "images of people moving against the white wall of the house opposite to his". His later work on this topic -- published in as a book with the wonderful title On fantastic visual appearances Uber die phantastischen gesichtserscheinungen , is considered a landmark in the psychiatric study of hallucinations, and articles about its importance continue to be published today.
His greatest failing, in hindsight, was his unceasing support of vitalism -- the view that it was impossible to reduce living processes to mechanical laws. This belief -- perhaps a holdover from his early education at Bonn -- was later proven wrong in many ways, including in work by his greatest student, Helmholtz see below.
In his words: "[T]he same cause, such as electricity, can simultaneously affect all sensory organs, since they are all sensitive to it; and yet, every sensory nerve reacts to it differently; one nerve perceives it as light, another hears its sound, another one smells it; another tastes the electricity, and another one feels it as pain and shock He was considered a dedicated and supportive teacher, even by students who could not accept this own approach.
This was certainly true of Helmholtz see below , who rejected vitalism entirely. He was also notoriously fastidious and obsessive about his work no comment. Handbuch der physiologischen optik Handbook of physiological optics. Leipzig: Leopold Voss.
Helmholtz, H. Physiologische grundlage fur die theorie der musik On the sensation of tone as a physiological basis for the theory of music. Braunschweig: Vieweg. Uber die erhaltung der kraft On the conservation of force. Biographical Notes Helmholtz was an incredible polymath, and one of the 19th century's greatest scientists. He achieved the height of scientific accomplishment in his generation, and was roughly equally well known in different stages of his career as a biologist, physicist, physician, philosopher, and mathematician.
Of his many accomplishments, he is perhaps best known for producing the first mathematical formulation of the Law of Conservation of Energy.
He read this paper to the Physical Society of Berlin in , but the older members in the society deemed it too speculative and rejected it for publication in Annalen der Physik -- which just goes to show that having a paper rejected doesn't mean it won't stand the test of time as an icon of scientific discovery through the ages.
Helmholtz was confined to his home in Potsdam for his first seven years due to "delicate health", but was educated in philosophy and mathematics by his father, and eventually graduated from the Potsdam Gymnasium. In he headed to the Friedrich Wilhelm Medical Institute in Berlin for a medical degree -- not because he was especially interested in medicine, but because this was the only ready route to a free advanced education.
His army duties were few, however, and so he set up a makeshift laboratory in the barracks for his regiment in Potsdam, and soon thereafter produced his famous paper on the Law of Conservation of Energy.
This work brought him early scientific fame, and he was released early from his army duties in order to be allowed in to take up a position as Assistant to the Anatomical Museum and Lecturer to the Academy of Fine Arts in Berlin. The harsh climate in Konigsberg didn't agree with his wife's health, however, and so he moved in to become Professor of Anatomy and Physiology at the University of Bonn, and then moved again in to the University of Heidelberg.
It was during the next 13 years in Heidelberg that he worked with Wilhelm Wundt see below as his assistant. In he moved back to Berlin to become Professor of Physics at the University of Berlin, and in was appointed as the first Director of the Physico-Technical Institute, the post he held until his death. He eventually received most of the prominent awards available in science, including election not only to the Royal Society in , with the Copley Medal awarded in but to the royalty itself which came with an inheritable peerage suffix "von", bestowed in by Kaiser Wilhelm I.
In the th anniversary of his birth , Germany issued his likeness on a stamp. Much of his work in physics and electrodynamics is not well known today, since it depended on assumptions about the ether, a concept which of course was eventually destroyed by Einstein's theories of relativity. Throughout this work, Helmholtz was also an imposing inventor and engineer, inventing among many other things the ophthalmoscope familiar today from any visit to an optometrist , the ophthalmometer used for measuring the accommodation of the eye -- eventually the topic of the first scientific publication of Carl Seashore [see below], his academic great-grandson , the myograph used for measuring the speed of nerve impulses , and the Helmholtz Resonaters built from resonating spheres that could be used for analyzing and creating the constituent tones of complex natural sounds.
He also propounded a theory of perception as unconscious inference , discussing why the contents of our conscious visual experience are not simple records of retinal input, but rather contain structure that is and must be indirectly inferred via automatic educated guesses.
He proposed that what is perceived are essentially those objects and events that under normal conditions would be most likely to produce the received sensory stimulation, judged against inborn assumptions about the structure of the world.
This principle of 'coincidence avoidance' remains a powerful explanatory tool today for an incredibly broad range of visual phenomena, and the principle continues to be directly discussed as an overarching theory of vision e. Helmholtz also laid the foundations for the modern science of acoustics, in his book, On the Sensation of Tone as a Psychological Basis for the Theory of Music.
Wundt, W. Grundzuge der physiologischen psychologie Principles of physiological psychology , 5th Edition Edward Bradford Titchener, Trans. Biographical Notes Wundt is widely acknowledged as the founder of experimental psychology.
He was eventually promoted to Assistant Professor of Physiology in , but in he failed to be appointed to Helmholtz's chair. He moved to Leipzig in , as the Chair of Inductive Philosophy, and immediately set up one of the first two psychological laboratories in the world the other being William James', that same year.
He mentored many important figures in the field -- even those who came to Leipzig for only a few years but did not stay to complete a PhD -- including G. In person, Wundt was quiet, methodical, and hard-working in nearly all aspects of his life; his daily schedule "ran like clockwork".
Wundt was well aware at the time that he was charting out a new field of study, noting in the preface of the first edition of his Principles of Physiological Psychology -- one of his major works, which went through 6 editions, up to -- that the work was intended to "mark out a new domain of science". Though Wundt is my adademic great-great-great-great-great-great-grandfather, there is reason to believe that we are separated by only 3 'handshakes'.
The great Belgian psychologist Albert Michotte visited Wundt for 1 year, between and , and likely shook hands with him. Michotte, toward the end of his life, shook hands in his drawing room with Pim Levelt -- now Director of the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics in Nijmegen, but then a year-old student who was joining Michotte's lab group for a short time.
Nature, , - Scripture, E. Cerebral light. Science, 6 , - Thinking, Feeling, Doing. Biographical Notes Scripture received a B. He studied for the Ph. While abroad Scripture also worked for a time with Ebbinghaus. After earning his Ph. After his move Scripture established the Yale Psychological Laboratory -- the first research laboratory in psychology at Yale , and one of the first in the country.
As part of my historical snooping I obtained this photo of Scripture's Yale laboratory and this photo of his seminar room. In New Haven Scripture held a weekly seminar for Yale graduate students at his home, during which all conversation was in German. Scripture was a nationally prominent psychologist during the earliest phases of his career, eventually publishing well over papers including more than 15 in Nature over the course of his career, and 6 in Science in a single year.
He also played a role in founding the APA -- and indeed was one of the 16 psychologists in the room in G.
Stanley Hall's study at Clark University at its original conception on July 8th, Scripture was an early advocate of methodological rigor, and was "obsessed with constancy, precision, and regularity".
This led to a focus on instrumentation which seemed to his student Carl Seashore see below to bear "more resemblance to telegraphy than psychology"; in this work he published articles with titles such as "An instrument for mapping hot and cold spots on the skin" in Science.
This focus also led him to disparage non-experimental work what he dubbed "armchair psychology" at every opportunity.
This type of value judgment extended back into the past, and in his infamous book The New Psychology he referred to the work of his intellectual forbears in philosophy as "endless speculation and flimsy guesswork", and as "merely a collection of vague observations as the basis of endless discussion".
He concluded that "philosophy Numbers are the beginning, the essence, and the end of all things Experimental psychology can never rise above a rather amateurish level till the leaders can handle vectors, Hamiltonians, and potentials as well as the representatives of the physical sciences can I now throw aside every book on psychology the moment I see a picture of the brain in it When a psychologist attempts to explain mental activity in terms of nerve cells and nerve currents he is merely trying to cloak psychological ignorance with neurological foolishness.
He was initially invited to Yale by George Trumbull Ladd, Chair of the Philosophy Department, and a figure of enormous power and influence in the University.
Ladd was also a major figure in Psychology at the time, and in was the second President of the APA serving immediately prior to William James. In fact, the idea that heart rate or pulse sensations might be involved in time perception has a long history, see, for example, Pavlov Mary Sturt — is now best remembered as an educational psychologist and historian of education. Her best-known work is probably written with Ellen Oakden. For much of her career she was Vice-principal of St. Her work is more diverse than that of the other two women discussed above.
It involved developmental studies of time knowledge, as well as experiments on time perception under conditions of self-inflicted discomfort, and some striking observations of performance on standard timing tasks, and time experience under highly stressful conditions.
It also involved work on date order, as well as memory for temporal and non-temporal information contained in narratives. The upper panel shows correct responses to four questions from a list of 22 given to children ranging from 4 to 10 years of age. Clear developmental trends in terms of accuracy between 4 and 10 years of age can be seen. The lower panel shows results from a problem involving putting historical dates in order: Attila A.
Once again, accuracy improves with age. Likewise, in another test where Dante A. Data from Oakden and Sturt Upper panel: Percentage of correct responses to four of the questions posed, plotted against the age of the participants.
Lower panel: Percentage of correct responses on the date arrangement task see text for details , plotted against participant age. Sturt reported three experiments on the judgement of duration, from two participants, one of which was herself. These involved estimation of various durations not given in the text , under different conditions. A few recent studies have actually inflicted pain, and threatened it, in timing experiments.
For example, Fayolle et al. Ogden et al. In Ogden et al. Stimuli associated with pain were judged as longer than those without this association.
Why did Sturt obtain the opposite effect? One possibility is that her time intervals were much longer than the short ones used in the experiments mentioned in the previous paragraphs although actual time values are not given in her article , and that for such stimuli the distracting effects of pain diverted attention away from timing, resulting in a shortening of perceived duration.
Lake et al. Data from Sturt Lower panel: Estimates of ratios of intervals, plotted against real values. The data in Fig. There were two basic tasks. The upper panel shows results when the boy estimated various durations without counting; data in the lower panel come from a sort of ratio-setting experiment, where he was asked to divide or multiply various original times by ratios varying from 0.
Performance was remarkably accurate at both tasks. Two other participants, who had no previous experience of estimating time, were much worse at both repeating a time interval, and halving it. Although being distracted from noticing the passage of time, as the soldier must have been, normally makes durations seem short in retrospect Wearden et al.
Academic life for women in the early years of the last century was far from easy: even obtaining an undergraduate education, still less a doctorate, was a challenging hurdle that all three women discussed here surmounted.
Nevertheless, the work which they published on time perception offers an insight into the different facets of the subject as investigated in the early years of the twentieth century, and stands as a reminder that women were involved the psychology of time perception even in periods which were unforgiving for them. The historical research that led to this article was supported by an Emeritus Fellowship grant from the Leverhulme Trust.
Allan , L. Human bisection at the geometric mean. Arstila , V. Time slows down during accidents. Boring , E. A History of Experimental Psychology. Bourdon , B. La perception du temps. Cohen , J. An experimental study of comparative judgements of time. Curtis , J. Duration and the temporal judgment. Droit-Volet , S. How emotions colour our perception of time.
Trends Cogn. Edgell , B. On time judgment. Oxford, UK : Clarendon Press. Mental life: an introduction to psychology. London, UK : Methuen. Ethical problems: an introduction to ethics for hospital nurses and social workers.
The Wheatstone-Hipp chronoscope: Its adjustments, accuracy and control. Fayolle , S. Fear and time: Fear speeds up the internal clock. Grondin , S. Unequal Weber fractions for the categorization of brief temporal intervals. Haigh , A. Hatfield , G. Objectifying the phenomenal in experimental psychology: Titchener and beyond. Killeen , P. A behavioral theory of timing.
Kopec , C. As he reasonably points out, logic comprises the rules of correct thinking, and the principles of logic are known to us as conscious representations L I: 76; 13; cf. Wundt ; thinking and consciousness are objects of psychological inquiry; therefore any account of logic must include a psychological description of the genesis of logical principles L I: Even the normative character of logic had, in his view, to be given a psychological interpretation cf.
Farber , , ff. How can we reconcile these statements? Their psychological immediacy does not, Wundt thinks, compromise their normativity, since what is given in consciousness precisely is their normative character.
Let us briefly describe these. Because, as was described above, thinking is. L I: 76—7. A thought [ Gedanke ] may exhibit immediate certainty, obvious without any mediating thought-acts; or a thought may be mediately certain, grounded in prior thought-acts. Immediate and mediate evidence have their source and foundation in intuition Anschauung : immediate evidence immediately, mediate evidence mediately L I: 82—3.
Intuition is not identical with evidence, for evidence only. By the standards of such philosophers as Husserl, Natorp, and Frege, Wundt appears committed to a logical psychologism. But it is worth considering his response to this charge, for it again illustrates his monistic perspectivism. Wundt b: Wundt finds a simpler solution in his perspectivism.
But there are no logical laws that are not also describable psychologically, just as there is no psychological phenomenon not also describable physiologically. The logical description saves the phenomenon of normativity, just as the psychological description saves the phenomenon of the interiority of consciousness. This was not the outcome Wundt had desired. He never saw his psychological scientism as a threat to philosophy—on the contrary, he considered his psychology to be a part of philosophy cf.
Boring , one necessary for philosophy to take its proper place in the totality of the sciences. Indeed, philosophy could only assume that position through the mediating position of psychology PP I: 3. Yet academic philosophers, denied the possibility of any legislative or executive functions in the sciences, rejected the juridical ones as well, bitterly resisting contamination of their pure pursuit by the empiricism of the new psychology. In Germany, resistance was especially stiff among neo-Kantians, and later the Phenomenologists.
If Wundt has a big idea, it is that Being is a single flow of Becoming with many sides and many ways of being described. Consequently we , as part of this Being, have many ways of describing and explaining it.
Few have as unblinkingly accepted the consequences of their starting points, or more doggedly pursued them to their various ends as Wundt.
Boring has an excellent annotated bibliography , ff. Wong —3, and Fahrenberg Other Internet Resources : 10— Kim stonybrook. Biographical Timeline 2. Experimental psychology: object and method 3. The theoretical framework of experimental psychology 6. The order of knowledge 7. L III: Wundt believes that one can experimentally correct for this problem by using, as much as possible, unexpected processes, processes not intentionally adduced, but rather such as involuntarily present themselves [ sich darbieten ].
L III: [ 19 ] In other words, it is in the controlled conditions of a laboratory that one can, by means of experimenter, experimental subject, and various apparatus, arbitrarily and repeatedly call forth precisely predetermined phenomena of consciousness. L III: [ 20 ] A detailed account of these experiments themselves, however, lies far beyond the scope of this article.
PP I: Now these various formulations [ 27 ] of WL admit, as Wundt says, of three different, and indeed incompatible interpretations; that is, there are three different conceptions of what WL is a law of. In other words, WL does not apply to sensations in and for themselves, but to processes of apperception, without which a quantitative estimation of sensations could never take place.
Wundt appeals to an analogy: This feature of consciousness can be clarified by that common image we use in calling consciousness an inner vision. PP II: Thus consciousness is a function of the scope of attention, which may be broader as perception or narrower as apperception [ 34 ].
Hence the degree of apperception is not to be measured according to the strength of the external impression [i. Wundt writes: Association everywhere gives the first impetus to [apperceptive] combinations.
Only in this way can one explain the well-known fact that we can easily and without trouble finish [composing] a complicated sentence-structure. In other words, as the apperceptive activity becomes increasingly intense it seems as it were to rise above the field of perception, above the field of its own constructs, becoming aware of itself as pure activity, as pure self -consciousness: rooted in the constant activity [ Wirksamkeit ] of apperception, [self-consciousness] … retreats completely into apperception alone, so that, after the completion of the development of consciousness, the will appears as the only content of self-consciousness….
The theoretical framework of experimental psychology As we have seen Section 3. Wundt writes: Objects of science do not in and of themselves yield starting points for a classification of the sciences. Because, as was described above, thinking is experienced immediately as an inner activity, … we must regard it as an act of will [ Willenshandlung ], and accordingly regard the logical laws of thought [ Denkgesetze ] as laws of the will.
Intuition is not identical with evidence, for evidence only comes to be at the moment when logical thinking relates the contents of intuition and presupposes the relations of such intuitive contents as objectively given.
Bibliography Boring has an excellent annotated bibliography , ff. Kroner, Leipzig: Engelmann. Revised editions in , , , , , , , , , followed by five unaltered editions. See Boring Windelband ed. Grundlinien einer psychologischen Entwicklungsgeschichte der Menschheit , Leipzig: Barth. Creighton and E. Titchener trans. Judd trans. Washburn trans. Translation of part of Ethik Schaub trans.
Mead et al. Sebeok series ed. Secondary sources concerning Wundt Araujo, S. Ash, M. Blumenthal, A. CO;2-H Bringmann, W. Balance, and R. Bringmann, W. Bringmann, and D. Bringmann, and W. Tweney ed. The Outline, which was stereotyped in , had long passed beyond. Psychology Enter your mobile number or email address below and we ll send you a link to download the free Kindle App. Edward Bradford Titchener was an Anglo-American psychologist and founder of the American school of psychology called structuralism.
Biography of Psychologist Edward B. Edward Bradford Titchener 11 January — 3 August was an English psychologist In his textbook An Outline of Psychology , Titchener put forward a list of more than 44, elemental qualities of conscious experience. Then you can start reading Kindle books on your smartphone, tablet, or computer - no Kindle device required.
Titchener is best remembered for his influence on the school psychology texts including Outline of Psychology , A Primer. An outline of psychology Book, WorldCat. This work has been selected by schol. This Elibron Classics edition is a facsimile reprint. Edward Bradford Titchener. Edward Titchener was born on Jan.
Structuralism psychology - Wikipedia. Titchener is best known for creating his version of psychology that described the structure of the mind: structuralism. Create lists, bibliographies and reviews: or Search WorldCat.
C5: Structuralism Flashcards Quizlet. Titchener, Edward Bradford SpringerLink. An outline of psychology Open Library. You have just demonstrated what Edward Bradford Titchener referred to as the psychology of structuralism. Edward Bradford Titchener 11 January — 3 August was a British psychologist who studied under Wilhelm Wundt for several years.
The world of psychology contains looks and tones and feelings; it is the world of dark and light, of noise and silence. Out of this curiosity to know science is born.
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